Helicopter Operations and Night Capability

Helicopter Operations and Night Capability IN INDIAN CONTEXT The helicopter is probably the most versatile instrument ever invented by man. It approaches closer than any other to fulfilment of mankinds ancient dreams of the flying horse and the magic carpet. Igor Ivanovitch Sikorsky CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background 1. After having flown the fixed wing aircraft successfully in 1903, man turned his attention towards the more complex and challenging problems of flying a rotary wing. The visionaries had long since prophesied the possibility of a vehicle that would takeoff vertically before moving forwards. The recorded evidence of this idea was found in the Chinese books as early as 400 BC, but it was probably only around 1490, when Leonardo da Vinci came up with his sketches of a similar vehicle, that the concept of helicopters actually advanced. Despite this, the first free flight was performed only in November 1907. Unlike the airplane, a helicopter is an aircraft with rotary wings. The capability to hover for long durations allows the helicopter to accomplish tasks unachievable by other means. In addition, the versatility and ease of operation, compared to a fixed wing aircraft make helicopters an excellent choice for all kinds of operations, by day and especially by night. Evolution of Helicopter 2. The earliest mentions of a vertical flight have been in a Chinese book written in 4th century BC, referred to as Pao Phu Tau[1]. Someone asked the master about the principles of mounting to dangerous heights and travelling into the vast inane. The Master said, Some have made flying cars with wood from the inner part of the jujube tree, using ox-leather [straps] fastened to returning blades so as to set the machine in motion[2]. However, it was in 1490, when Leonardo da Vinci had the imagination to design a machine made of wood and starched linen, called the ‘helical screw. This machine, operated by a spring mechanism, was supposed to literally screw itself vertically into the air. This machine, shown in Fig. 1, was the origin of the word helicopter. The word is a combination of the Greek words, ‘Helix meaning spiral and ‘Pteron meaning wing[3]. Thereafter, in July 1754, Mikhail Lomonosov demonstrated a small coaxial rotor for lifting meteorological instruments. C hristian de Launoy, and his mechanic, Bienvenu, made a model with a pair of counter-rotating rotors, using turkeys flight feathers as rotor blades, in 1784. 3. Between the Fifteenth and Twentieth Centuries, adequate machinery needed to produce helicopters, like turbine engines and rotors, was not yet made possible by assembly lines, but as the Industrial Revolution prompted factories and technology accelerated, the helicopter evolved. One of the first breakthroughs in helicopter advancement was by George Cayley who produced a converti-plane in 1843. A man named Bourne flew the helicopter-like aircraft a year later. Spring-like contraptions inside, apparently powered this model. All helicopter models at this time lacked suitable power to achieve flight and were both bulky and heavy[4]. In 1877, Enrico Forlaninis unmanned helicopter, powered by a steam engine stayed at a height of 13 m for 20 secs after a vertical takeoff. However, Breguet-Richet‘s Gyroplane No. 1 achieved the first successful vertical flight, in September 1907. Since this machine did not have any control or steering devices of its own, this could not take the credit for the first helicopter to make a truly free flight. Paul Cornu claimed this recognition in November 1907, when he flew his ‘Flying Bicycle at a height of 0.3 m for 20 secs. 4. During the World War I in 1917, the engineers of Hungarian Ganz Company designed a radical motorized flying machine to replace the dangerous hydrogen-filled balloons, then being used to observe enemy positions. This aircraft flew to a height of over 50 m. 120 hp engines and two massive wooden propellers turning in opposite directions supported it. It was intended to lift a pilot, an observer, a machine gun and fuel for an hours flight. Because of great success and curious design, many specialists consider it as the worlds first real helicopter[5]. The quality and quantity of production materials increased, and great improvements were made in the field of engine technology in many parts of the world including Europe and the United States. An aircraft model for military advancement was needed for more versatile and precise war tactics. With better technology and more need, the next step in helicopter advancement would soon come. 5. Meanwhile, Juan de la Cierva was developing the first practical rotorcraft in Spain. In 1923, the aircraft that would become the basis for the modern helicopter rotor began to take shape in the form of an autogyro. Cierva had discovered aerodynamic and structural deficiencies in his early designs that could cause his autogyros to flip over after takeoff. The flapping hinges that Cierva designed for the C.4 allowed the rotor to develop lift equally on the left and right halves of the rotor disk. A crash in 1927, led to the development of a drag hinge to relieve further stress on the rotor from its flapping motion. These two developments allowed for a stable rotor system, not only in a hover, but in forward flight. Albert Gillis von Baumhauer, a Dutch aeronautical engineer, began studying rotorcraft design in 1923. His first prototype flew (hopped and hovered in reality) on 24 September 1925, with Dutch Army-Air arm Captain Floris Albert van Heijst at the controls. The controls that Captain Heijst used were Von Baumhauers inventions, the cyclic and collective. Patents were granted to Baumhauer for his cyclic and collective controls by the British ministry of aviation on 31 January 1927. At the same time, Boris N. Yuriev and Alexei M. Cheremukhin constructed and flew a single rotor helicopter that had an open tubing framework and utilized two anti-torque rotors, one each at tail and nose. Another Russian, Nicolas Florine, built the first twin tandem rotor machine to perform a free flight, in 1933. The Brà ©guet-Dorand Gyroplane Laboratoire was built in 1933. After many ground tests and an accident, it first took flight on 26 June 1935. Within a short time, the aircraft was setting records with pilot Maurice Claisse at the controls. On 14 December 1935, he set a record for closed-circuit flight with a 500-meter (1,600 ft) diameter. The next year, on 26 September 1936, Claisse set a height record of 158 meters (520 ft). And, finally, on 24 November 1936, he set a flight duration record of one hour, two minutes and 5 seconds over a 44 kilometre (27 mi) closed circuit at 44.7 kilometres per hour (27.8 mph). The aircraft was destroyed in 1943 by an Allied airstrike at Villacoublay airport. Despite the success of the Gyroplane Laboratoire, the German Focke-Wulf Fw 61, first flown in 1936, would eclipse its accomplishments. The Fw 61 broke all of the helicopter world records in 1937, demonstrating a flight envelope that had only previously been achieved by the autogyro. Nazi Germany would use helicopters in small numbers during World War II for observation, transport, and medical evacuation. The Flettner Fl 282 Kolibri synchropter was used in the Mediterranean Sea, while the Focke Achgelis Fa 223 Drache was used in Europe. Extensive bombing by the Allied forces prevented Germany from producing any helicopters in large quantities during the war. 6. In the United States, Igor Sikorsky built the VS-300, a single rotor design with a smaller rotor mounted vertically on the tail boom to counter the torque produced by the main rotor. Developed from this design, the R-4 became the first mass produced helicopter. This was also the only allied helicopter to see service in the World War II. Sikorsky produced over 400 helicopters of R-4, R-5 and R-6 types before the end of the war. Meanwhile, Bell Aircraft built the Model 30, which later developed into Bell 47, which became the first certified helicopter for civilian use and remained the most popular model for nearly three decades. 7. In 1951, Charles Kaman modified his K-225 helicopter with the turbo-shaft engine. This was a major development in terms of reducing weight penalty. On 11 December 1951, this became the first turbine powered helicopter, followed by Navy HTK-1 to be the first twin-turbine helicopter, in 1954. However, Alouette II was the first helicopter produced with a turbine engine[6]. More development were seen during the 1960s and 70s due to the Vietnam War. These advancements were fuelled by the militarys requirement for advanced helicopters for use as gunships, missile-launching platforms and for the rescue of the wounded troops. The Bell 209 Cobra was one of the helicopters produced at that time. Thereafter, with further advancement in technology, came the era of ‘Tiltrotors. McDonnell produced their Tiltrotor UAV and Bell/Boeing produced the model 609, the worlds first commercial Tiltrotor[7]. Helicopters have continued to develop with the advancing technology and concepts like Ã¢â‚¬Ë œNOTAR, contra-rotating rotors, etc., have come into being. The helicopters have also found employment in nearly all walks of life and will continue to develop and find more areas of usability in the future. Nevertheless, for India the helicopter age started in the mid 1950s when a couple of Sikorsky helicopters flew in the Indian skies for the first time. The initial build-up was slow. The war with China in 1962 gave the necessary impetus to the chopper fleet in the armed forces. Since then there is no looking back[8]. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY ‘When once you have tasted flight, you will forever walk the earth with your eyes turned skywards, for there you have been, and there you will always long to return†. Leonardo da Vinci Statement of the Problem 1. To identify and study the roles and challenges for night operations by helicopters and to suggest measures to overcome these, in Indian context. Hypothesis 2. Helicopters are going to be employed in greater numbers all over the world and India is no exception. Night helicopter operations will become a necessity due to the utilization of these machines in greater numbers as well as the future trends. Thus, India needs to improve the infrastructure and the support services to optimally utilise these flying machines by ensuring their unhindered operations by night. Justification for the Study 3. The year 2008 had been declared as the year of the Helicopter, in India. The incredibly complex flying machine has come a long way and is now whirring at Indias doorstep like never before, both in the civil and military sectors. That is why the third International Seminar Heli Power India 2008 turned into a resounding success after Heli Power India 2006[9]. In addition, in August 2009, U.S. Trade and Development Agency (USTDA) awarded a grant to the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA), in India, to help update regulations and practices governing helicopter operations. The USTDA grant, to be carried out under the auspices of the U.S.-India Aviation Cooperation Program (ACP), will aid in the growth and development of Indias civil aviation sector by fostering increases in the volume of helicopter operations in the expanding Indian market[10]. Even though the growth of civil helicopter industry has stalled a bit in the world scenario, there is optimism in its growth in India. In a presentation at HELI-EXPO 2006, Air Vice Marshal Sridharan said, â€Å"India is truly a helicopter country on account of its diverse topography†[11]. This was because of the interlacing rivers and numerous hill ranges that impede the development of rail/road network. Helicopters are routinely employed by civil administration to support Government operations to connect to population centres in most of north India. Also since India is prone to natural disasters, wherein helicopters are utilised in a big way for relief operations, the need for, and thus the numbers of helicopters in operations is going to steadily increase. 4. The helicopter strength has not increased greatly in the defence services, though there are plans to upgrade the existing fleet as well as procure new helicopters in the near future. This will be mandatory keeping the internal security scenario in mind post 26/11 incident at Mumbai. Along with the increase in the number of helicopters, the changing scenario is laying more emphasis on night operations, throughout the world. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate our capabilities to be able to undertake unhindered helicopter operations by night. Scope 5. This study concentrates on bringing out the present and future roles envisaged for helicopter night operations, both civil and military, in Indian context. The paper is also intended to analyse the challenges to these operations, not considering the financial implications, and make some recommendations to enhance helicopter operations in India. Method of Data Collection 6. The data/information for preparing this dissertation has been collected through books, periodicals, aviation magazines, journals and articles available at the Defence Services Staff College Library, Wellington. Handouts issued by the College and various papers presented on helicopters have been referred to. Due to the paucity of literature in the library, articles, publications, papers by professionals available on internet have been extensively used. Many aspects have been discussed with officers from the helicopter stream of all three services. Bibliography of the various sources has been appended to this paper. Organisation of the Dissertation 7. The paper has been organised into chapters. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I. Introduction (b) Chapter II. Methodology (c) Chapter III. Characteristics of a Helicopter (d) Chapter IV. Helicopter Operations in India (e) Chapter V. Helicopter Night Operations: Civil (f) Chapter VI. Helicopter Night Operations: Military (g) Chapter VII. Requirements for Night Operations (h) Chapter VIII. Challenges in Night Operations (i) Chapter IX. Recommendations (j) Chapter X. Conclusion CHAPTER III CHARACTERISTICS OF A HELICOPTER â€Å"Helicopters are really a bunch of parts flying in relatively close formation; all rotating around a different axis. Things work well until one of the parts breaks formation†. Anonymous 1. Unlike an airplane which uses the engine thrust for forward propulsion and the fixed aerofoil sections (wings) for the lift, a helicopter uses a set of rotating aerofoil sections (rotors) for both the lift as well as the directional motion. The engine power is primarily used for rotating the main rotor. It also has an anti-torque system in the form of a vertical tail rotor/contra-rotating coaxial main rotor or in some types; called the ‘NOTAR, the jet efflux from the main engine is used for this purpose. This method of lift generations bestows the helicopter with the ability:- (a) To takeoff and land vertically (b) To hover over any given point (c) To move in any direction, i.e. forward, backward and sideways (d) Turn through 360 ° over a given point. 2. At times the helicopter require a short air strip to be able to carry out Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL) instead of the Vertical Takeoff and Landing (VTOL) due to the power requirement for VTOL not being available. This would depend on the:- (a) All Up Weight (AUW). More the AUW more will be the power required for VTOL. (b) Winds. Like conventional aircraft, helicopters takeoff/land most efficiently, when pointed into wind. Stronger the head winds the more efficiently the machine behaves. (c) Density Altitude (DA). This is a function of the prevailing temperature and the density at the operating altitude and this determines the performance of the helicopter. Lower the DA better is the performance and load carrying capacity of a helicopter. Types of Helicopters 3. The helicopters are classified into various types based on their Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW), their role and their design[12]. Based on the MTOW they are classified as:- (a) Type-I (Heavy) Skycrane S-61, Chinook, Mi-26 (b) Type-II (Medium) Bell 205 (c) Type-III (Light) Jetranger / Md-500 4. Based on the role they are classified as:- (a) Utility helicopter Mi-8, Mi-17, UH-1 Huey (b) Armed helicopter/Gunship A utility helicopter with limited firepower (c) Attack helicopter Mi-25/35, AH-64 Apache (d) Airborne Early Warning (AEW) helicopter Kamov Ka-32 (e) Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) helicopter Seaking (f) Multi-mission and Rescue helicopters Chetak, Cheetal (g) Observation helicopters OH-58 Kiowa, Gazelle (h) Training helicopters Robinson R22, Cheetah (j) Skycrane helicopters Sikorsky S-64 (k) Helitack helicopters Bell 205 (l) MEDEVAC helicopters Sikorsky S76-C+ (m) Unmanned helicopters Sikorsky Cypher II, Bombardier CL-327 Guardian 5. Based on their construction, they are classified as:- (a) Conventional (Single rotor and tail rotor combination) Alouette III, HAL Dhruv (b) NOTAR (No Tail Rotor) MD Helicopters 520N, Aerotà ©cnica AC-14 (c) Tandem rotor CH-47 Chinook, Boeing Vertol 107-II (d) Fenestron Eurocopter EC120B, Aà ©rospatiale Gazelle (e) Tip jet rotor McDonnell XV-1, Hughes XH-17 (f) Coaxial rotors Kamov-32, Sikorsky S-69 (g) Synchropter Flettner Fl 282 Kolibri, HH-43 Huskie (h) Compound helicopter/Gyrodyne McDonnell XV-1, Kamov Ka-22 (j) Tilt rotor Bell/Boeing V-22 Osprey, Bell/Agusta BA 609 (k) X-wing Sikorsky S-72 (only experimental) Advantages over Fixed Wing 6. The major advantages of a helicopter over a conventional fixed wing aircraft are as follows:- (a) Ubiquity. The ability of a helicopter to operate from any/every place, without the requirement of a prepared surface, is its biggest advantage. This is also the major factor which favours extensive night operations by a helicopter, as it does not require elaborate infrastructure for night operations. (b) Flexibility. The helicopter is very flexible in terms of task performance. It can be converted from one role to another with minimal time, resources and effort. This characteristic aids in ease of operations by night wherein there would be constraints in terms of lighted space, etc. (c) Vertical Envelopment. Helicopters can achieve and maintain vertical envelopment without the need for a linkup. (d) Versatility. The helicopters ability to fly at all speed regimes (i.e. 0 to maximum) and at very low heights, permits the use of terrain masking to improve its survivability and thus its utilization in combat scenario. This property also propels the use of helicopter in various civilian applications like survey, meteorological observation, etc. (e) Logistic Support. Due to the above-mentioned attributes, the helicopter is the ideal platform for speedy logistic support in confined/inaccessible areas both for military as well as civilian needs. (f) Under Slung Load. Helicopters also have the advantage of carrying the cargo/payload either inside their fuselage or, if the size/shape of the cargo/payload so demands then, outside as an under slung load, with minimal penalty. (g) Weather. Helicopters can be flown in weather conditions like poor visibility and precipitation which would not permit flight of an airplane, owing to their versatility. Availability of better onboard avionics has improved its all weather capability manifolds. (h) Night Operations. Owing to its ubiquity, versatility and the capability to operate in marginal weather conditions, helicopters make an ideal choice for night operations. Limitations 7. Helicopters do have certain disadvantages as well, in comparison to a fixed wing aircraft. Some of these are:- (a) Limited Speed. Due to the characteristics of rotating rotor blades (tip speeds approaching 1 Mach) helicopters cannot travel faster than about 350 kmph[13]. These speeds are very low and unsafe in a combat area. (b) Fuel Consumption. Helicopter consumes more fuel than a conventional aircraft in performing the same task. (c) Limited Range. Helicopters being smaller, carry lesser fuel. This coupled with the higher fuel consumption have a severe limitation on the range of operations of helicopters. (d) Payload. Helicopters have to strike a balance between the size and weight of the intended payload viz. their own design and manoeuvrability. The bigger the intended payload the bigger the helicopter and lesser is the manoeuvrability (applicable for both internal and under slung loads). Also, the payload capacity of the helicopter reduces more rapidly with increase in altitude, compared to an airplane. (e) Maintenance. Maintenance is difficult due to large number of moving part[14]. (f) High Cost. Rotorcraft being complex cost many times more than conventional airplane of similar performance, both in procurement as well as in operations. (g) Noise Vibrations. Helicopters are inherently noisy and prone to vibrations due to the rotor dynamics. This is problem area for both civil as well as military employment of these machines. (h) Limited Service Ceiling. In general, helicopters have a much lower service ceiling compared to an airplane. Additionally, most of the helicopters have an unpressurised cabin/passenger area, thereby forcing them to operate at much lower altitudes, due oxygen considerations. (i) Vulnerability. Noise, low speed and limitations due load are the major contributors to military helicopters being vulnerable to enemy fire. Thus, the armour requirement for the helicopter depends on these factors. CHAPTER IV HELICOPTER OPERATIONS IN INDIA â€Å"Any Air Force that welcomes the onset of darknessis well on its way to victory† Mark Hewish Civil Helicopters 1. Though the history of helicopter dates back to 400 BC, for India the helicopter age started in the mid 1950s when a couple of Sikorsky helicopters flew in the Indian skies for the first time[15]. These helicopters were for the Indian Air Force. The first commercial helicopter flight was undertaken by Capt. R Captain in a Hiller UH 12B in Nov 53. Helicopters in both civil military have been in service of the nation for over 59 years. From 1953 to 1986, the commercial use of helicopters in India was limited to small Aviation companies who were involved in communication and crop spraying roles. The formation of Helicopter Corporation of India by the Govt in 1986 (later named Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited) with a fleet of 42 helicopters provided the first boost to the Industry in the country. The growth rate has registered double digit only since 2004. Since then, until 2007, the growth of civil registered helicopters has been very modest, as shown in Fig 2[16]. 2. Against a global average of one helicopter per half million people, in India the ratio is one helicopter for five million. The Rotary Wing Society of India (RWSI), the only society of its kind came into existence in 1998 and that too due single handed efforts of Air Vice Marshal (Retd) K Sridharan. Despite the late start, the prospects for growth in civil helicopter fleet are bright. The rapidly growing economy with activities spreading to remote, inaccessible areas, increased dependence on air travel and the ever widening search for energy reserves could propel growth in the next few years[17]. Realising the potential shown by civilian helicopter operations across the country, the civil aviation ministry is reportedly setting up a ‘Helicopter Mission to coordinate helicopter operations and deliberate on relevant issues[18]. Military Helicopters 3. The build up of military helicopters was slow and the impetus to the fleet actually came only after the 1962 war with China, although some helicopters did see action in that war itself, primarily in the casualty evacuation role. The earliest helicopter pilots in India were former Fighter and Transport pilots who for medical reasons or ‘service exigencies were moved to helicopter units. They were joined by some pilots of the Auxiliary Air Force. The first ‘true blood chopper pilots were commissioned with the 83rd Pilots Course in 1963. As no helicopter training facility existed in India, those flight cadets who were selected to fly choppers were sent to the UK or USSR for their initial conversion before returning home to join Mi-4 or Chetak units. Subsequently a Logistic Support Training Unit was set up in Allahabad for training helicopter pilots, and this was later converted to the Helicopter Training School, which is currently located at Fighter Training Wing in Hyder abad[19]. From this modest beginning the IAF has grown in strength and capability to now participate in international exercises as well as in UN peace keeping missions all over the world. Helicopter Industry 4. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) came into existence on 01 October 1964. The Company was formed by the merger of Hindustan Aircraft Limited with Aeronautics India Limited and Aircraft Manufacturing Depot, Kanpur. The Company traces its roots to the pioneering efforts of an industrialist with extraordinary vision, the late Seth Walchand Hirachand, who set up Hindustan Aircraft Limited at Bangalore in association with the erstwhile princely State of Mysore in December 1940. The Government of India became a shareholder in March 1941 and took over the Management in 1942. HALS involvement with rotary-winged aircraft dates back to June 1962 when, to meet the Indian Air Forces requirement for light helicopters, the Government of India signed a licence agreement with M/s SUD-AVIATION (Presently M/s EUROCOPTER, France)[20]. 5. The first helicopter type to be built at HAL Bangalore was the Alouette Ill, later named Chetak, with firm orders having been placed in January 1965, the raw material production phase beginning in 1969-70. The Alouette II, with the dynamics including power plant of the Alouette Ill was specifically developed to meet the Indian Armys stringent requirement and was christened Lama by the French (and Cheetah by the Indians). First Cheetah manufactured from raw materials was delivered in 1976-77[21]. 6. Over the next twenty years, HALs Helicopter Division produced hundreds of Chetak and Cheetah helicopters for the Indian Air Force, Navy, Army and Coast Guard as also for a number of civilian customers, including State Governments while a score or more were exported. This division has also produced the Dhruv helicopter (Advanced Light Helicopter-ALH) and its variants for the three services as well as for certain friendly foreign nations. It is currently pursuing the series production of the same and also developing the Indian Light Combat Helicopter (LCH)[22]. 7. Indias attraction for helicopter makers is reaffirmed by strategic deals struck in the past year by key rotorcraft players. Sikorsky Aircraft has signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with a unit of Tata Group on the production of cabins for the S-92 helicopter and Eurocopter has expanded its manufacturing capability in India in collaboration with Mach Aero[23]. CHAPTER V HELICOPTER NIGHT OPERATIONS: CIVIL Any idiot can get an airplane off the ground, but an aviator earns his keep by bringing it back anytime, anywhere, under any circumstances that man and God can dream up. Walter Cunningham 1. Helicopter is a unique and very versatile machine and can be deployed in variety of roles by modifying them even at a very short notice. The various civil operations that can be undertaken by helicopters in the night are discussed in the following paragraphs. The many other roles undertaken by helicopters like, the use of Sky crane, maintenance and repair of overhead high tension cables, etc. are not discussed here as these operations are likely to be undertaken in day only. 2. Helicopter Emergency Medical Service (HEMS). Helicopters are used as air ambulances for emergency medical assistance in situations when an ambulance cannot easily or quickly reach the scene. Helicopters are also used when a patient needs to be transported between medical facilities and air transportation is the most practical method for the safety of the patient. Air ambulance helicopters are equipped to provide medical treatment to a patient while in flight. The use of helicopters as an air ambulance is often referred to as MEDEVAC, and the service is known as Helicopter Emergency Medical Service (HEMS)[24], [25]. 3. Disaster Management. Disaster relief and humanitarian operations have become an increasingly important part of missions undertaken by many air forces around the world. The very magnitude of natural disasters like the massive tsunami, earthquake in 2001 and the seasonal floods in country warrant concerted efforts by various agencies to cope with the widespread destruction caused. Inevitably the helicopter had yet again featured as the primary air asset in bringing relief to the victims in these areas, be it food supplies, medical evacuation or movement of rescue parties to the hard to reach stricken areas. Tactical transport helicopters were used in a variety of multi-tasked missions from various air force bases around the region. They provided a vital link in creating the bridge for movement of personnel and materials in areas with little or no accessibility. At times, these operations had to be delayed due to the inclement weather or the absence of night capability with the helic opter in use. These occurrences reiterate the need for the nations armed forces as well as civil agencies to maintain a modern and effective rotary winged element that is capable of responding to these situations, irrespective of day or night[26]. 4. Airborne Law Enforcement. Police departments and other law enforcement agencies, in other nations, use helicopters to pursue suspects. Since helicopters can achieve a unique aerial view, they are often used in conjunction with police on the ground to report on suspects locations and movements. They are often mounted with lighting and heat-sensing equipment for night pursuits[27]. The same is likely to be inducted into our Police and other security agencies, in the future. 5. Electronic News Gathering. Helicopters, due to their versatility ubiquity, have become a popular means of electronic news gathering. The helicopters come equipped with gyro stabilised zoom cameras mounted under the fuselage and all other associated electronic equipment onboard for a direct transmission on satellite television. They are also equipped with cameras and lights for night time operations. Though this is not yet proliferated to India, the time is not very far when well see couple of these helicopters operating overhead, on a 24 x 7 basis. 6. Aerial Survey. Government and industries require various surveys like damp surveys, heat loss surveys, insulation integrity, water ingress, electrical distribution inspections, aerial mapping GIS of cities, pipeline aerial surveys, landfill site surveys for detection of methane gas and leachate flows, animal censusing surveys, sub-surface heating pipe/wiring detection and mapping etc. For their planning and development processes. These can be easily carried out by suitable equipment mounted on a helicopter. The advantage being that since the helicopter travels at a much slower speed and at a lower height compared to an airplane; the sampling rate for each parameter would be that much higher

Occupational Safety and Health Administration Essay

On December 29, 1970 Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act. The purpose of this act as quoted from the act itself is: â€Å"To assure safe and healthful working conditions for working men and women; by authorizing enforcement of the standards developed under the Act; by assisting and encouraging the States in their efforts to assure safe and healthful working conditions; by providing for research, information, education, and training in the field of occupational safety and health; and for other purposes.† This act requires employers to provide workplaces that are free from serious recognized hazards and to comply with occupational safety and health standards. The mission of OSHA is to save lives, prevent injuries, and protect the health of America’s workers. Since 1970 OSHA has grown to over 1,130 inspectors in states under federal OSHA jurisdiction. Personnel also includes investigators, engineers, physicians, educators, standards writers and other sup port personnel spread over more than 200 offices throughout the country (OSHA FAQ) . Since 1970 workplace fatalities have been reduced by half. Even with this decline fourteen Americans are killed on the job every single day of the year. In addition, tens of thousands die every year from workplace disease and over 4.6 million workers are seriously injured on the job (OSHA FAQ). The Department of Labor which conducts the OSHA inspections wants workers to feel safe on the job. Workers have rights that include the right to request an inspection, have a representative present at the inspection, have dangerous substances identified, be informed about exposure to hazards, and have employer violations posted at the worksite (OSH Act). In section 5 of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 there is a set of duties that employers and employees are supposed to follow in order to be best assisted by OSHA. This General Duty Clause states: â€Å"(a) Each employer – (1) shall furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees; (2) shall comply with occupational safety and health standards promulgated under this Act. (b) Each employee shall comply with occupational safety and health standards and all rules, regulations, and orders issued pursuant to this Act which are applicable to his own actions and conduct.† In section 8 of the OSH Act regarding Inspections and Investigations it states: â€Å"(a) In order to carry out the purposes of this Act, the Secretary, upon appropriate credentials to the owner, operator or agent in charge is authorized- (1) to enter without delay and at reasonable times any factory, plant establishment, construction site or other area, workplace or environment where work is performed by an employee of an employer; and (2) to inspect and investigate during regular working hours and at other reasonable times, and within reasonable limits and in a reasonable manner, any such place of employment and all pertinent conditions, structures, machines, apparatus, devices, equipment, and materials therein, and to question privately any such employer, owner operator, agent or employee.† In Marshall v. Barlow’s Inc., 436 U.S. 307 (1978), this case involved the constitutionality of a provision in the Occupational Safety and Health Act that permitted inspectors to enter premises without a warrant to inspect for safety hazards and violation of OSHA regulations. The Court held that this provision violated the Fourth Amendment. In The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, commentary is given on this case. One issue in the case was whether a warrant was required. The Court had previously held that no warrant was required to inspect either the premises of a liquor licensee or a licensed gun dealer’s storeroom. Distinguishing these earlier cases because each concerned a closely regulated industry, the Court in Barlow’s concluded that requiring warrants in the OSHA context would not â€Å"impose serious burdens on the inspection system or the courts† (p. 316). As for the grounds to obtain an inspection warrant, Barlow’s follows the rule in Camara v. Municipal Court (1967) that traditional probable cause is unnecessary if the authorities can show that the inspection conforms to â€Å"reasonable legislative or administrative standards† (p. 538). So, the Court in Barlow’s concluded that a warrant â€Å"showing that a specific business has been chosen for an OSHA search on the basis of a general administrative plan for the enforcement of the Act derived from neutral sources† (p. 321) would be sufficient, because it would ensure against arbitrary selection of employers. Marshall v. Barlow did little to change the frequency and effectiveness of OSHA inspections. First, OSHA regulations apply to millions of businesses and are enforced by only 1,130 inspectors. Obvious principles of good management would send these inspectors to businesses that justified to have an inspection based on accident history and the number of employee complaints. OSHA’s managers had already been using this type of plan prior to the Barlow inspection since Barlow’s Inc. was selected for an inspection based on its accident history. In the â€Å"AEI Journal on Government and Society†, we are given insight on how the Barlow decision protected business, yet still allowed OSHA inspectors to obtain Ex Parte warrants. Barlow left open the question whether â€Å"judicial orders for inspections routinely sought under the secretary’s existing regulations when employers refuse entry are the functional equivalent of warrants and thus satisfy the Fourth Amendment (6)†. When OSHA’s inspectors conduct criminal investigations with the assistance of a U.S. attorney, they may â€Å"obtain warrants by telephone pursuant to Rule 41(c) of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure (7)†. The Barlow decision made the point of saying that if the purpose of an OSHA search is to obtain evidence of crime rather than civil infractions; probable cause that criminal conduct has occurred must be shown to justify a warrant. OSHA Instruction STP 2.18 reiterates that the Supreme Court held that the Fourth Amendment requires a warrant for a nonconsensual OSHA inspection. However, the Court recognized the importance of surprise in the conduct of inspections (as reflected in the Act’s general prohibition against advance notice of an inspection), â€Å"in preventing the speedy alteration or disguise of violations so that they escape the inspector’s notice†. The instruction goes on to say that: â€Å"The Court explicitly noted the Secretary of Labor’s authority to promulgate a regulation under which warrants could be sought ex parte; i.e., without the knowledge or participation of the employer. Such warrants might be sought after refusal of an employer to grant entry for an inspection or, in some cases, prior to any attempt to gain entry.† This procedure has helped maximize the effectiveness of criminal enforcement agencies since Barlow did not limit surprise inspections. The only important safeguard that the Barlow decision offered employers was the protection against inspections conducted in bad faith or for purposes of harassment. There are some instances when an inspection requires no warrant. An article titled â€Å"Warrantless OSHA Inspections† by Mark E. Farrell gives an example of how this situation can occur. Farrell summarizes the details in Lakeland Enterprises of Rhinelander, Inc. v. Chao, 402 F.3d 739 (7th Cir. 2005). A sewer and water contractor (Lakeland) in northern Wisconsin was performing excavation work at an industrial park when an OSHA inspector, driving by on the public street, decided to stop and perform an impromptu inspection. After walking past traffic cones that were blocking street traffic from the project site, the inspector observed a Lakeland employee excavating a trench with a backhoe while another employee worked at the bottom of the trench. â€Å"The trench was approximately eighteen feet deep and six feet wide at the bottom and did not contain a ladder or trench box†. When the contractor’s project superintendent began conversing with the OSHA inspector, the worker in the trench climbed up one of the walls to exit, which resulted in loose dirt falling back into the trench. â€Å"The employee performing the excavation work admitted that he knew that the other worker was not supposed to be working in the trench and that he failed to remove him† (Farrell). OSHA ended up issuing three citations and assessed a $49,000 civil penalty against the contractor, including a â€Å"willful violation for permitting an employee to work in an unprotected trench (in violation of 29 CFR  § 1926.652(a)†. During the hearing, the contractor moved to â€Å"suppress the evidence obtained from the inspection† on the basis that the OSHA inspector’s â€Å"warrantless search of the excavation site violated the Fourth Amendment†. The administrative law judge denied the motion, finding that the contractor had no right of privacy at the excavation site because the land was located on a public road. The administrative law judge also concluded that any Fourth Amendment claim was waived because the contractor failed to object to the inspection or ask for a warrant at the site (Farrell). It is important to understand that no advance notice of a worksite inspection needs to be given. Unannounced inspections are an important tool in OSHA’s mission to promote safe and healthful working conditions at all times. OSHA has come a long way since 1970 to help American become a safe place to work especially when compared to some parts of the world. With a good budget and better laws there are fewer injuries every year. OSHA truly is one of the administrative agencies that exist for the bettering of the quality of life for the workers of our country. Works Cited Farrell, Mark E. â€Å"Warrantless OSHA Inspections Newsletter Article.† Lorman Education Services – Continuing Education Seminars. Web. 1 Mar. 2011. . Hall, Kermit L. â€Å"Marshall v. Barlow’s Inc.† The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. 2005. â€Å"OSH Act, OSHA Standards, Inspections, Citations and Penalties.† Occupational Safety and Health Administration – Home. OSHA Office of Training and Education, May 1996. Web. 2 Mar. 2011. . â€Å"OSHA and the Fourth Amendment.† AEI JOURNAL ON GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY (1978): 6-7. AEI JOURNAL ON GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY. Web. United States of America. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970. Print United States of America. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Inspections and Investigations: Obtaining Warrants on an Ex Parte Basis and Prior to Attempting Entry. Bruce Hillenbrand Acting Director, Federal Compliance and State Programs, 26 Feb. 1981. Web. . United States of America. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA Frequently Asked Questions. Web. 1 Mar. 2011. .

psychology Essay - 990 Words

Chapter 2 nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;This article is from the April 2003 issue of Psychology Today. In chapter 2, behavior is the main topic. Behavior is a bit unexplainable , but it can be put into form of patterns or predictions. Also, behavior is uncontrolled, but can be changed to a small degree with the use of medicine or a good diet. This article â€Å"Fighting Crime One Bite At A Time† tells how a good diet can maybe decrease the number of rule breaking by prisoners in jail. This article relates how changing ones nutrition can change their behavior. This article showed an experiment where 231 inmates were either given vitamin supplements and the others to fake pills to see which group would break the rules more. The vitamin group†¦show more content†¦A small part in chapter talks about the conflict in intimate relationships in how you can’t really truly be honest in with your feeling and your sexual desires. It also talks about how being able to handle interpersonal conflict is important in any relationship. This article â€Å"Save Your Relationship† comes from the April 2003 issue of Psychology Today relates how in to work on breaking new ground in intimate relationships and how to put the spice back in the sack. This article really talks about how to not argue about the little things and really just appreciate the time that you get to spend together. Your emotions in a relationship are one of the most important things. Chapter 9 nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;This is the chapter is on lifespan development and the growing of a child through there life. In this chapter there is a part that talks about how parents talk to there kids in a kind of baby talk also known as motherese or infant directed speech. Talking to your child while they are in the infant or toddler stage in a high pitch voice or using half words will only hurt your child’s development as they begin to talk. This article taken from Psychology Today entitled â€Å"Cut The Baby Talk† relates how talking to children in baby talk will slow down their language skills as they grow. This study suggests that speaking in complex sentences will set a better example and improve their language skills whenShow MoreRelatedPsychology : Psychology And Psychology1627 Words   |  7 Pagescovers the many questions we may have about psychology. It starts with the history and how it has changed throughout the years. It covers some of the many subfields an d jobs you can have as a psychologist. It also covers the four big ideas that are associated with psychology. There are many more topics and sub-topics that will be covered within this paper on chapter 1. Section 1-1 Psychological Science is born: This section shows how the heart of psychology changes over time. In 1879, at a germanRead MorePsychology : Psychology And Psychology1519 Words   |  7 PagesPsychology has been defined by many as the study of mental disorder or behavioral problems but discoveries and developments, points to psychology as the study of human mind and its functionality which includes the way we think, act, perceive things and be able to make decisions; all these makes man a complex being. Psychology isn’t just a phenomenon; it is a scientific study. Psychology as a science answers the question â€Å"why†, proposes a theory and sets experiment to test the hypothesis. The researchRead MorePsychology : Psychology And Psychology889 Words   |  4 PagesOne: Psychology Defined Psychology is an exceptionally multifaceted field of study, regardless, it can be commonly defined as the study of mental processes and human behavior. The goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict and control the behavior of others. Psychology incorporates an extensive range of different perspectives into its general principles as well as focuses on securing them with applied research, case studies, evaluations, etc. I first became interested in psychology whenRead MorePsychology : Psychology And Psychology1018 Words   |  5 Pagesof psychology is common to talk about the psychological schools, as these are defined as groups of psychologists who shared a theoretical view and focused psychological problems with a common orientation; these have evolved over time. Psychology was first established as a separate science of biology and philosophy, that s when the real debate over how to describe and explain the human mind and behavior began start, different psychological schools represent the major theories of psychology. TheRead MorePsychology : Psychology And Psychology892 Words   |  4 PagesWhen you first think of the word psychology, what is the first thing that comes to your mind? Well, some people might say they don’t know or some would say it’s something that has to do with the mind and/or human behavior. Psychology which comes from the Greek term â€Å"psyche† is the study of mental processes and behavior; especially those affecting behavior in a given context. There are several schools of thought in psychology. These schools include: structuralism (Wundt), functionalism (James), gestaltRead MorePsychology : Psychology And Psychology1267 Words   |  6 PagesPaper What is psychology? What impact does psychology have on the world? What does it mean to be a psychologist? These are three important questions that will be investigated throughout this paper. Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and behavior. Psychology influences many behaviors in the world without anyone noticing. Watson is interested in behaviorism. This means he was interested in the behavior of people and how they act and react. Through his article, Psychology as the BehavioristRead MorePsychology : Psychology And Psychology850 Words   |  4 PagesPsychology to me is meant to help people understand the complexity of other human beings. We have established the existence of many disorders which are mainly beyond the control of people because of chemical imbalances in the brain. Although with these reasons, we still have attached negative and positive connotations to many disorders. We have created this concept of psychology in order to help us try to find some sense of order in our lives. This can allow us to try rank ourselves next to anotherRead MorePsychology : Psychology And Psychology1703 Words   |  7 PagesPsychology has a lot of jobs to choose from.Any job in psychology is going to be involved helping people. Trying to find out why people do the things they do and trying to predi ct the behavior of people, their emotions, and mental processes. Making sure your child or any person you care about is okay mentally, is important and is the job of people who work in a major in psychology. For this paper, the roles of a psychiatrist, a counselor, and a psychologist will be discussed. The audience will learnRead MorePsychology : Psychology And Psychology1300 Words   |  6 PagesIn Psychology There are six modern psychological perspectives. These perspectives are behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive, social, cultural, and biological. Each perspective has its own unique way of explaining human behavior. I think that really explains the complex mental processes and behavior, and each prospective study should not be limited to just one. The following is my explanation of the terms and comparisons between the psychodynamic and behavioral aspects relating to the OctoberRead MorePsychology : Psychology And Psychology Essay2200 Words   |  9 PagesHow is ps ychology defined today? How did psychology start out being defined originally? Humans have always been interested in understanding their own body, especially the brain itself. Some of the first people to explore psychology were Aristotle and Socrates, (even though some of the things they thought were wrong) of course at the time they did not know what exactly they were studying. https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/introduction-to-psychology-1/intr